Wessex was now a settled land of villages, farms and fields whose names still figure on our maps. They rode at will across Sussex and Hampshire, moored their fleet in Poole harbour, burnt Norwich and Thetford, beat the fyrd at Penselwood in the heart of Wessex, and rode past Winchester flaunting the plunder of Berkshire as they returned in triumph to their ships. For an hour three of his retainers barred the only causeway. Uhtred's daughter Stiorra was taken by Sihtric as part of the peace terms, but the two fell in love and eventually married. So did the sculptors of the Winchester School who carved the angel at Bradford-on-Avon, the Virgin and Child at Inglesham, and the wonderful Harrowing of Hell in Bristol cathedral. The future of European society lay with whoever could discipline and ennoble feudalism. They knew how to govern, just as they knew how to win battles, because they were absolutely clear what they wanted and how to get it. Historica Wiki is a FANDOM Games Community. They had evolved a union of Church and State for national ends which had no parallel outside the civilized empire of the Greeks; their bishops and earldormen sat side by side in the Witan and in the provincial and shire courts. Its wealth, so much superior to that of Normandy, seemed a standing invitation. Following the Battle of Tettenhall in 910 AD, King Edward the Elder of Wessex no longer saw the Danes as a threat, and he instead shifted his focus to the Mercian succession dispute which followed the death of Lord Aethelred. England was more fortunate. But as soon as they had spent the money they returned for more, harrying the countryside until a new ransom or. The Danes withdrew from Winchester without the need for a final assault, settling in their new lands in Northumbria, where Sihtric became King of Jorvik. A rapid assault on the English kingdoms of Northumbria, East Anglia and Mercia followed, and by 871 Wessex, the southernmost kingdom, was the only one left independent. Then the kings young son, Edmund Ironside, put up a fight worthy of Alfred himself against Sweyns son and successor, Canute. If he was invulnerable to his countrys foes he was equally so to its rulers, and a scourge to everyone within reach of his strong arm. Do Not Sell or Share My Personal Information. They sailed to the mouth of the Humber and ravaged throughout Northumbria, "doing much evil". The History of the Vikings in England (AD. It proved a wise choice. Did Winchester fall to the Danes? They were masters, too, of law and rhetoric and, in their own estimation at least, of courtesy. At Glastonbury, where his first work was done, legend went back far beyond the English conquest to the tiny wattle church which St. Joseph of Arimathea was supposed to have built among the water meadows for the conversion of Roman Britain. In the middle of the eleventh century a few hundred of them succeeded in seizing the south of Italy from the Byzantine Greeks. He was a soft, devout, peace-loving man, with a clerks long tapering fingers, a rosy face and flaxen hair that turned with age to a beautiful silver. Like their kinsfolk in the old Danelaw and East Anglia, these northern dalesmen pirates brood though they were had a great respect for law, so long as they themselves made it. How Do You Get Rid Of Hiccups In 5 Seconds? Why Did Shakespeare Paint Richard III as a Villain? Settled by Angles, their name is the root of the name England. But they had infinite ambition and a sense of space and grandeur. For it was a rule among these independent-minded men that, save in a boat or on the battlefield, they were all equal. Next year they slew its bishop. The townsmen of Germany, Flanders, Francia, northern Spain and Italy were building walls round their cities; the feudal nobles of the countryside equipping companies of mounted and armoured knights. Here, translated from the chronicle, is the story of that invasion of Wessex in AD 1001 A.D. 1001. As he had so conveniently refrained from giving his kingdom an heir, his great-nephew, the young Duke of Normandy, formed the idea of claiming it for himself. It was at Edgars coronation that the earliest form of the service still used at the crowning of Englands kings was read by its author, the mystic saint and musician, Archbishop Dunstan. he defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Edington in 878. In 1054 Siward, earl of Northumbria, was forced to lead a punitive expedition as far as the Forth, the old Northumbrian frontier, where he dethroned the Celtic usurper, Macbeth, and installed an exiled prince of the old Scottish line Malcolm, king of the Cumbrians. His men, seeing their leader fall, started to fly. Like Canute, Rollo the Viking and his descendants, in acquiring a Christian land, had become fervent champions of the Church. A rapid assault on the English kingdoms of Northumbria, East Anglia and Mercia followed, and by 871 Wessex, the southernmost kingdom, was the only one left independent. After that sacramental act loyalty to the Crown became a Christian obligation. For war this people had a supreme genius. The English coast was attacked by the Danes every year from 980 until the conquest of 1016, and then again in 1066 and finally in 1055. Then the kings young son, Edmund Ironside, put up a fight worthy of Alfred himself against Sweyns son and successor, Canute. By the middle of the century it had succeeded in prohibiting private fighting at least in theory from Thursday night till Monday morning. However, Uhtred slipped out of the city and returned with a new fyrd loyal to Aethelflaed, and Edward ultimately decided to let Aethelflaed rule Mercia as his ally. What do historians lose with the decline of local news. Here Christian missionaries from harried Ireland were busy turning the Scandinavian settlements along the coasts and dales into Christian parishes. She had lost her freedom of action. The eldest child of the King Alfred of Wessex, thelfld was thought to have been a strong, independent and well educated lady. They had been joined by the English and Danish settlers of northern Northumbria or Lothian the corn-growing coastal plain which alone offered a chance of nationhood to the rocky, poverty- stricken lands of Caledonia. It was part of her kings policy to establish in every shire at least one town with a market-place and mint where contracts could be witnessed and reliable money coined. They were what the Romans had been a thousand years before, the natural leaders of their age. Had this great, though harsh, man lived, the course of European history might have been different. After ascending the throne, Alfred spent several years fighting Viking invasions. It made for a multiplicity of rival princedoms, duchies and counties whose territories were for ever changing. By the middle of the century it had succeeded in prohibiting private fighting at least in theory from Thursday night till Monday morning. They became the greatest church-builders since the days of Charlemagne and even since those of imperial Rome, whose giant buildings they boldly tried to copy. Some of the earldormen and the feeble kings favourites threw in their lot with the enemy, shifting from side to side in selfish attempts to increase their dominions. Like their Norse forbears, they would go to the worlds end for plunder. 793 - AD. King Athelstan took back the kingdom of York from the Vikings. They are patient of cold if need be, patient of hunger, patient of hard work; they are passionately fond of hawking, of riding, of warlike armour and of splendid garments. They did not even found a dynasty. Alfred reorganized his army and used ships against the invaders as early as 875. Everyone's heard of 1066: Harold of England (allegedly) . The Witenagemot agreed, causing Edward to order his army to take over the city in the absence of the mutinous Mercian guard and amid the disorganization of the Mercian fyrd after Tettenhall. Only in island England had patriotism for a time enabled the Crown to hold together a nation. 28 Apr 2020. And if at first the self-interest was mutual, it soon became contradictory and self-destructive. So did the sculptors of the Winchester School who carved the angel at Bradford-on-Avon, the Virgin and Child at Inglesham, and the wonderful Harrowing of Hell in Bristol cathedral. As they sat, in mantles of brightly coloured silks fastened with golden collars and garnet-inlaid brooches, listening to song, harp and minstrelsy, the princes and earldormen of Wessex were served from polished drinking - horns chased with silver and wooden goblets with gold. Sihtric agreed to evacuate Winchester and leave Mercia, Wessex, and East Anglia in Saxon hands in exchange for Aethelflaed ceding Jorvik and the surrounding region of Northymbre to Sihtric's followers. Which kingdom did King Athelstan take back from the Vikings? They also had assumed a Welsh rather than an island patriotism; had become the Cymry or fellow-countrymen, uniting in battle, whenever plunder offered, against their wealthier neighbours, even though the English of the western shires were almost as Celtic as themselves. ges, that Edward the Confessor, himself half a Norman, modelled his abbey church at Westminster. Six month later, after five astonishing victories at PenseRvood on the borders of Somerset and Wiltshire, at Sherston, on the road to London, at Brentford, and at Otford in Kent he was himself defeated by Canute at Ashingdon in Essex through the treachery of one of his earls, a vile favourite of his fathers. It is estimated that more than half the population of Winchester may have been lost to the disease. Politically this reversal of the unifying trend of the tenth century was to exact a heavy toll in racial war, cattle-raiding and border-baron brigandage. A few weeks later he died at Oxford. It was after the model of one of their abbeys, Jumi. Aethelflaed, Lady of the Mercians. Here, too, as in the great northern kingdom that had welcomed Aidan and bred Cuthbert, Celtic blood and tradition mingled with Saxon. They were masters, too, of law and rhetoric and, in their own estimation at least, of courtesy. Here, that he might watch his abbey rising the West Minster, as it was called he made himself a hall that was one, day to become the heart of an empire. 1066) The era of Lindisfarne and raiders from the sea is long past - by this point in history, the Vikings in Britain are settlers, lords and kings. He even succeeded in persuading his uncle to promise it him though it was not by English law his to promise. The century of Athelstan and Edgar saw a new flowering of Anglo-Saxon art. He lived for war and by it. Only London, its walls manned by its warrior gild, remained faithful to the royal cause and Alfreds disgraced line. The Sack of Winchester occurred in 911 AD when the Dyflin Viking army of Sihtric Caech launched a surprise attack on the West Saxon capital of Winchester and sacked and captured the city. The Duke of Normandy was not the only European ruler impatiently awaiting the Confessors death. Arthur Bryant looks at how The Bones of Shire and State were formed before the Normans came. , Ragnar Lothbrok. With their grim massiveness and twin-towers rising into the sky like swords, such churches seemed designed, as Henry Adams wrote, to force Heaven: all of them look as though they had fought at Hastings or stormed Jerusalem.. The Danes withdrew from Winchester without the need for a final assault, settling in their new lands in Northumbria, where Sihtric became King of Jorvik. Appointed in the days of Athelstan to lead the fyrd and enforce the royal law in a single shire, the earldorman by the eleventh century, with his accumulation of shires and hereditary claim to office, had grown beyond the control of any ordinary ruler. Archbishop Dunstan himself was a craftsman and loved to fashion jewellery and cast church-bells. 2012-2023 On Secret Hunt - All Rights Reserved But he returned to England at the head of a fleet, harried its coasts and, with the help of the Londoners, dictated terms to the throne. He did homage to him for his fief, swore fidelitas or fealty to him, gave him in war the precise measure of military service neither more nor less laid down in the terms of his enfeoffment, and attended formal meetings of his court of law. A few years after the great king had been laid in his grave at Winchester, one of their leaders, Rollo, secured from Charles the Simple ruler of all that remained of Western Francia a permanent settlement in the lower Seine basin which was called after them Normandy. Under Alfred she had helped to save Christendom, as she had done two centuries earlier in the days of Bede and Boniface. After the reconquest of the Danish lands in the early 10th century by King Edward the Elder, Mercia was ruled by ealdormen for the Wessex kings, who became kings of all England. Uhtreds daughter Stiorra was taken by Sihtric as part of the peace terms, but the two fell in love and eventually married. Canute gave it for a time. On April 23rd, 1016 St. Georges Day Ethelred died and Edmund succeeded. In the midst of the Viking era, in the first half of the 10th century, the kingdom of Denmark coalesced in Jutland (Jylland) under King Gorm the Old. Comment * document.getElementById("comment").setAttribute( "id", "a372fbac32ea1bf0c9a81c2a3c4139fe" );document.getElementById("c08a1a06c7").setAttribute( "id", "comment" ); Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Alfreds most famous victory came at Ethandun in 878, but the Battle of Ashdown, fought seven years earlier on 8 January 871 when Alfred was a 21-year old prince, was equally significant in stopping the momentum of the invading Danes. With their hard Norse brilliance, they rode their horses through the waves of battle as their pirate forbears had sailed their ships. Alfred ignored his brothers orders however, and launched an audacious attack down the hill against the enemy. Finally, in 870 the Danes attacked the only remaining independent Anglo-Saxon kingdom, Wessex, whose forces were commanded by King Aethelred and his younger brother Alfred. They had met with no concerted resistance, and though Ethelreds kingdom was the richest of the English dominions, its success against the invaders was certainly not guaranteed. Uhtred's daughter Stiorra was taken by Sihtric as part of the peace terms, but the two fell in love and eventually married. Their God they shall praise, it was said of the Celts, their language they shall keep, their land they shall lose except wild Wales! In 1055 the men of this indomitable, hardy race, under a patriot prince, Griffith or Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, ravaged the city of Hereford in alliance with a traitor English earl, and burnt the minster which Athelstan had built. With his horse, lance, sword and shield, and leather and chain-armour hauberk, he was the answer to the invading horde from which the West had suffered so long. The very word entered England through their speech. But as soon as they had spent the money they returned for more, harrying the countryside until a new ransom or danegeld was raised. The Vikings had conquered almost the whole of England. Header image credit: Alfred the Greats statue at Winchester. Those they enrolled in their war-bands and they drew from every race they turned into Normans, as proud, ruthless and efficient as themselves. They were not delicate craftsmen like the English; their chief resource was to build immensely thick walls, and several of their grander achievements fell down. Their great homilist, Aelfric, had repudiated transsubstantiation, and the saintly Dunstan tolerated a sober married clergy. The Story of England: The End of the Saxon Kingdom, During the century that followed Alfreds defeat of the Danes the process of rebuilding Christian society went on faster in England than in any other country. At the battle of Ashdown in 871, Alfred routed the Viking army in a fiercely fought uphill assault. Even the Hungarians, routed by Athelstans brother-in-law, the Saxon Otto the Great, had discovered that raiding no longer paid. The sacrifice was in vain for nothing could save Ethelreds England but the flame of that days courage still burns in the Anglo-Saxon epic, The Battle of Maldon. The other peoples of the British Isles were also restive at the spectacle of English weakness. Levis jumped sharply in betting . The failure of the Danes to make any more advances against Alfred was largely a result of the defensive measures he undertook during the war. The monasteries again fell into decay, the farms were plundered, the peasants taxed into starvation and sold as slaves. Eardwulf sought to aid the Danes against King Edward, and he proposed a plan to take Winchester without bloodshed. The dream of an earlier, greater Wales, ever victorious against the Saxons, began to haunt their poems and tales: the Mabinogion with their legends of Arthur and the great Druid magician, Merlin. How long does it take for a body to recomposition? As a result, though a country of little account at the worlds edge, her wealth rapidly increased. Aftermath Canute's death led to the dissolution of his empire, but Danish rule over England continued under his sons. Two years before Athelstans victory at Brunanburgh they sacked Genoa. The word cross, derived from the Latin crux, was introduced by these Irish evangelists, gradually taking the place of the Anglo-Saxon rood. It first appeared in northern names like Crosby and Crossthwaite. Edgar, who was called its Caesar, was rowed up the Dee at Chester in 973 by eight vassal kings, who between them did fealty for almost the entire island. It was only a nominal title, for neither in Germany nor Italy, where he was crowned by the Pope, did he or his successors ever own much more than their private feudal lands and castles. Only London, its walls manned by its warrior gild, remained faithful to the royal cause and Alfreds disgraced line. The richer parish churches helped to house such treasures: small barnlike buildings, with primitive rounded arches, high walls. With the spirit they troubled themselves little; they were a practical folk who loved clear definitions. In its permanent nucleus, its land approximated that of the modern counties of Hampshire, Dorset, Wiltshire, and Somerset. The revenge taken by the bloodthirsty king, Sweyn Forkbeard, was as terrible as deserved. While Wessex and Mercia were distracted, the Vikings of Dyflin - led by Sihtric Caech - invaded Wales, captured the Deheubarth fortress at Dinefwr, and inflicted a terrible defeat on Prince Hywel Dda when he set out to reclaim to the fortress. Copyright 2023 History Today Ltd. Company no. In the chapel-royal of the Norman robber king at Palermo and in the cathedral his heirs built at Monreale they infused the graceful sunshine art of the Saracens and Byzantines with their own northern vigour. At a meeting of the Witan at Oxford he swore to govern his new realm by the laws of King Edgar. It rested the State on selfishness alone, and created a society without the cement of love and loyalty; one in which power was sought as a means of self-aggrandisement and men took to themselves lords that they might oppress others. Hundreds of history documentaries, ad free podcasts and subscriber rewards. True to Alfreds policy of trust, he is said to have granted the king of the Scots and Picts the Lothian plain between Tweed and Forth in return for his allegiance. In the middle of the eleventh century a few hundred of them succeeded in seizing the south of Italy from the Byzantine Greeks. They received an unpleasant awakening. It was as though the Norman knights, the most acquisitive in Europe, were trying to offset their outrages by the orthodoxy of their ecclesiastical establishments and, while they stormed their way into their neighbours lands, to buy an entry to Heaven. Home | About | Contact | Copyright | Privacy | Cookie Policy | Terms & Conditions | Sitemap. After the collapse of Canutes empire the Normans turned their gaze on England. For ever at loggerheads with one another, they pursued their mutually antagonistic ends by war, for war was their sole resource. Seven years later, when the last of them died as he stood at his drink at Lambeth, the Witan chose as successor the forty-year-old Edward, son of Ethelred the Unready by his second wife, Emma of Normandy. Under their feckless king, who let all the nations labour come to nought, nothing went right for the English. By the eleventh century almost every village possessed a water-mill, and, in the rich eastern counties of Norfolk and Lincoln, often more than one. After Mercia was annexed by Wessex in the early 10th century, the West Saxon rulers divided it into shires modelled after their own system, cutting across traditional Mercian divisions. They returned in 876, but were forced to withdraw. The average Viking was 8-10 cm (3-4 inches) shorter than we are today. Your email address will not be published. They were not delicate craftsmen like the English; their chief resource was to build immensely thick walls, and several of their grander achievements fell down. Wessex was invaded by the Danes in 871, and Alfred was compelled to pay them to leave. The True Tale of Wales Legendary Hay Castle, 8 Formidable Fighters of the Hellenistic Period, Operation Unthinkable: Churchills Postwar Contingency Plan, The Pirates Code: Laws and Life Aboard Ship, How the Island of Rhodes Overcame a Superpower, Historical Trips - Book your next historical adventure, 10 Must-See Medieval Landmarks in England, Join Dan Snow for the Anniversary of the D-Day Landings, Lost Literature: Why Most English Texts Didnt Survive the Middle Ages, The Legacy of Hal 9000: How Science Fiction Depictions of AI Have Changed Over Time. Ivories and jewelled crucifixes, golden and silver candelabra, onyx vases and elaborate wood-carvings, superbly embroidered vestments, stoles and altar cloths adorned the churches and the halls and hunting lodges of the great. He was not more powerful than death. The indicates that the character was not fighting . Meanwhile Saracen pirates, having driven the Byzantine fleets from the Mediterranean, harried Europes southern coasts. The ideal of patriotism first began to take vague shape in mens minds, superseding the older conception of tribal kinship. Then a Danish herald asked that the English should withdraw to allow his countrymen to cross and battle to be joined. Other Scandinavian words were being woven into the map of northern England; gate a street and thwaite a clearing; fell a hill and thorpe a settlement; foss a waterfall and by a village. A few weeks later he died at Oxford. A similar process had long been taking place on the Continent. Did Winchester fall to the Danes? From 1016 to 1035, Cnut the Great ruled over a unified English kingdom, itself the product of a resurgent Wessex, as part of his North Sea Empire, together with Denmark, Norway and part of Sweden. They were as restless as they were greedy and calculating. How long does it take for a sunburn to turn into a tan? According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the Danes "kept the place of slaughter", meaning that they won the battle, but they suffered heavy losses, including thelwold and a King Eohric, possibly of the East Anglian Danes. It was an offence against God, the Church taught, for a vassal to be false to his liege-lord. Hundreds of thousands of pounds of silver was collected by the kings of England. Chester sent its earldorman a thousand salmon a year, and Petersham in Surrey a thousand lampreys. He loved to work, too, in the, , as he had done as a young monk; in his day the illuminators of the monastic renaissance, with their gorgeous colouring and boldly flowing margins, reached new heights of achievement. But there are also examples of upper class Vikings who lived longer for instance Harald Fairhair, who was King of Norway for more than 60 years. Alfred was not the archetypal burly and bearded Saxon warrior, but a man of keen intelligence who won battles through cunning rather than brute force. They never left anyone in any doubt as to what they wished them to do. Greater London, Hertfordshire, Surrey). According to medieval sources, Ragnar Lothbrok was a 9th-century Danish Viking king and warrior known for his exploits, for his death in a snake pit at the hands of Aella of Northumbria, and for being the father of Halfdan, Ivar the Boneless, and Hubba, who led an invasion of East Anglia in 865. For if Canute had conquered England, in a wider sense England conquered him. As they sat, in mantles of brightly coloured silks fastened with golden collars and garnet-inlaid brooches, listening to song, harp and minstrelsy, the princes and earldormen of Wessex were served from polished drinking - horns chased with silver and wooden goblets with gold. But soon afterwards, adventuring far into the Danish ranks, he was cut down and slain. , Egil Skallagrimsson. The bulk of the raids came from Denmark, Southern Norway and Sweden (the areas around the Kattegat and Skagerakk sea areas). He died at forty, his work incomplete and most of his mighty projects still a dream. Anglo-Saxons and Vikings. For three years the two great soldiers, Englishman and Dane, fought each other among the forests and marshes of southern England. The chief obstacle in the Dukes way was Godwins eldest surviving son, Harold, earl of Wessex, brother to the queen and leader of the English and anti-Norman party at Edwards court. Aftermath. Canute established his main court in England, at Winchester, which became the capital of his huge northern empire. Yet it marked a stage in the recovery of Europes dignity and freedom of action. They rode at will across Sussex and Hampshire, moored their fleet in Poole harbour, burnt Norwich and Thetford, beat the fyrd at Penselwood in the heart of Wessex, and rode past Winchester flaunting the plunder of Berkshire as they returned in triumph to their ships. Which kingdom did King Athelstan take back from the Vikings? Their patron-saint, standing above their churches with uplifted sword and outstretched wings, was the warrior archangel Michael, guardian of Heaven; their conception of God a feudal overlord, ready to reward those like themselves who kept the letter of His law. He even succeeded in persuading his uncle to promise it him though it was not by English law his to promise. Ruthless, entirely without sentiment, and, though passionate, self-possessed and cool, they had the simplicity of genius. The English were in many ;ways a more civilized people than any in northern Europe; they seem to have been gentler, kindlier and more peaceably governed. With its fine craftsmen and the rule of its strong kings, England was beginning once more to accumulate treasures: to become a rich land worth plundering as she was before the Danes attacked her. And though the lords of the Witan replaced Eadreds feeble and petulant son by his able brother, Edgar, the latter died in 975 at the age of thirty-one. With their round bullet-heads, blue eyes and long aquiline noses, they looked like intelligent birds of prey. The Danes were the original Vikings. Ethelred of Wessex was Alfreds brother, and his predecessor as king. Alfred was born at Wantage in Oxfordshire in 849, fourth or fifth son of Aethelwulf, king of the West Saxons. The very word entered England through their speech. These plundering Magyars, or Hungarians as they were called, swept through East Francia or Germany and, With its fine craftsmen and the rule of its strong kings, England was beginning once more to accumulate treasures: to become a rich land worth plundering as she was before the Danes attacked her. He is the only English monarch known as 'the Great'. He followed Alfred. It was this that helped to give England in the tenth century institutions stronger than those of any western land. . Alfred may be more famous in Britain for burning cakes than saving the country from the Danes, but few historians dispute his position as the only English king to be awarded the epithet of Great.. Anything that may be counselled never stands for a month. The English were not only outmanoeuvred; they were betrayed. This established a new peace between Saxon and Dane, one that would hold for years. He made immense grants of land to a Sussex thane named Godwin, whom Canute had created earl of the West Saxons, and who, in the dynastic quarrels before his accession, had been instrumental in blinding and, possibly, murdering Edwards brother, and later, when the Danish cause seemed doomed, in securing his election to the throne. The Danish Vikings, also known as Danes, were the most politically organized of the different types of Vikings. Without a trained bureaucracy the Roman system of raising revenue could not work; a Frankish king could only levy taxes by farming them out to local magnates. But when under her last athelings she no longer proved capable of giving leadership, she found herself, as though by some inescapable law of her being, receiving it from others. Finding from isolated raids on the coast that her people were no longer invincible, they struck in 991 at her south-eastern shires. Afterwards, Brida led her men in desecrating the Christian gravesites around Winchester, hoping that this blatant sacrilege would encourage the Saxons to attack Winchester. The Anglo-Saxons were from Europe. The squabbling duchies and counties of the shadowy kingdoms of western and eastern Francia, Burgundy, and Italy were based on no other allegiance but this. It produced the very anarchy it was designed to avoid. Then a Danish herald asked that the English should withdraw to allow his countrymen to cross and battle to be joined. But the premature attempts of rulers like Charlemagne to recreate an international empire based on law had been shattered, partly by the Norse raids and still more by the difficulty of uniting large areas inhabited by primitive peoples. The bidding prayer in York Minster might invoke a blessing on king and earldorman, but it was the latter, with his castle and retainers, who now had the power to oppress or protect his neighbours.
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